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  • August 2014 (Revised August 2015)
  • Supplement

Opening the Valve: From Software to Hardware (B)

By: Ethan Bernstein, Francesca Gino and Bradley Staats
Valve, one of the world's top video game software companies, has also become an iconic example of an organization with virtually no hierarchy. A 400-person organization, Valve's unique organizational form (described in detail in the case and accompanying employee... View Details
Keywords: Valve; Self-Managed Organizations; Organization Design; Strategy; Flat Organization; Video Games; Organization Alignment; Family Business; Steam; Steam Machine; Design; Games, Gaming, and Gambling; Human Resources; Collaborative Innovation and Invention; Technological Innovation; Leadership Style; Management Practices and Processes; Organizational Design; Organizational Structure; Organizational Culture; Organizational Change and Adaptation; Groups and Teams; Alignment; Software; Hardware; Video Game Industry; Seattle
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Bernstein, Ethan, Francesca Gino, and Bradley Staats. "Opening the Valve: From Software to Hardware (B)." Harvard Business School Supplement 415-016, August 2014. (Revised August 2015.)
  • 11 Jun 2006 - 13 Jun 2006
  • Conference Presentation

Exploring the Links Between Product and Organizational Architectures: An Empirical Study of Open and Closed Source Software

By: Alan MacCormack
Keywords: Product Design; Organizational Structure; Software
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MacCormack, Alan. "Exploring the Links Between Product and Organizational Architectures: An Empirical Study of Open and Closed Source Software." Paper presented at the International Product Development Management Conference, Milan, Italy, June 11–13, 2006.
  • Other Article

Exploring the Relationship Between Architecture Coupling and Software Vulnerabilities

By: Robert Lagerstrom, Carliss Y. Baldwin, Alan MacCormack, Daniel J. Sturtevant and Lee Doolan
Employing software metrics, such as size and complexity, for predicting defects has been given a lot of attention over the years and proven very useful. However, the few studies looking at software architecture and vulnerabilities are limited in scope and findings. We... View Details
Keywords: Security Vulnerabilities; Software Architecture; Metrics; Software; Complexity; Measurement and Metrics
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Lagerstrom, Robert, Carliss Y. Baldwin, Alan MacCormack, Daniel J. Sturtevant, and Lee Doolan. "Exploring the Relationship Between Architecture Coupling and Software Vulnerabilities." Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering Secure Software and Systems (ESSoS) 9th (2017): 53–69. (Part of Lecture Notes in Computer Science, ISSN 0302-9743.)
  • May 2007
  • Article

The Governance of Open Source Initiatives: What Does it Mean to be Community Managed?

The concept of 'open source' software initially referred to software projects managed by grassroots communities in public forums. Since 1998, the concept has been adapted and diffused to new settings that extend beyond software. While the open source community has... View Details
Keywords: Governance; Open Source Distribution
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O'Mahony, Siobhan. "The Governance of Open Source Initiatives: What Does it Mean to be Community Managed?" Art. 4. Special Issue on the Roundtable on the Governance of Open Source Software Journal of Management and Governance 11, no. 2 (May 2007): 139–150.
  • September 2004 (Revised June 2005)
  • Case

Wintel (F): From Multi-Geographic Contact to Open Source

By: David B. Yoffie
Supplements the (A) case. View Details
Keywords: Computer Industry
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Yoffie, David B. "Wintel (F): From Multi-Geographic Contact to Open Source." Harvard Business School Case 705-413, September 2004. (Revised June 2005.)
  • Article

Exploring the Duality Between Product and Organizational Architectures: A Test of the 'Mirroring' Hypothesis

By: Alan MacCormack, Carliss Y. Baldwin and John Rusnak
A variety of academic studies argue that a relationship exists between the structure of an organization and the design of the products that the organization produces. Specifically, products tend to "mirror" the architectures of the organizations in which they are... View Details
Keywords: Organization Design; Architecture; Modularity; Open Source Software; Communication; Design; Governance; Management Practices and Processes; Open Source Distribution; Product Design; Mission and Purpose; Organizational Structure; Performance; Problems and Challenges; Behavior; Software
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MacCormack, Alan, Carliss Y. Baldwin, and John Rusnak. "Exploring the Duality Between Product and Organizational Architectures: A Test of the 'Mirroring' Hypothesis." Research Policy 41, no. 8 (October 2012): 1309–1324.
  • September 2, 2021
  • Article

The Digital Economy Runs on Open Source. Here's How to Protect It.

By: Hila Lifshitz-Assaf and Frank Nagle
Free and open source software (FOSS) is essential to much of the tech we use every day—from cars to phones to planes to the cloud. While traditionally, it was developed by an army of volunteer developers and given away for free, companies are increasingly taking a more... View Details
Keywords: Free And Open-source Software; FOSS; Open Source Distribution; Applications and Software; Collaborative Innovation and Invention; Organizations; Policy; Cybersecurity
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Lifshitz-Assaf, Hila, and Frank Nagle. "The Digital Economy Runs on Open Source. Here's How to Protect It." Harvard Business Review Digital Articles (September 2, 2021).
  • 2025
  • Working Paper

Generative AI and the Nature of Work

By: Manuel Hoffmann, Sam Boysel, Frank Nagle, Sida Peng and Kevin Xu
Recent advances in artificial intelligence (AI) technology demonstrate a considerable potential to complement human capital intensive activities. While an emerging literature documents wide-ranging productivity effects of AI, relatively little attention has been paid... View Details
Keywords: Generative Ai; Digital Work; Open Source Software; Knowledge Economy; AI and Machine Learning; Open Source Distribution; Organizational Structure; Performance Productivity; Labor
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Hoffmann, Manuel, Sam Boysel, Frank Nagle, Sida Peng, and Kevin Xu. "Generative AI and the Nature of Work." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 25-021, October 2024. (Revised April 2025.)
  • April 2006 (Revised March 2007)
  • Case

Black Duck Software

By: Constance E. Bagley and David Lane
Black Duck Software involves a venture-backed start-up that converted software developers' concerns about violating copyright licensing agreements or open source protocols into an opportunity to help firms use technology to better manage their compliance efforts.... View Details
Keywords: Value Creation; Law; Open Source Distribution; Applications and Software; Business Startups; Copyright
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Bagley, Constance E., and David Lane. "Black Duck Software." Harvard Business School Case 806-121, April 2006. (Revised March 2007.)
  • Article

The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond

By: Josh Lerner and Jean Tirole
Keywords: Economics; Technology
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Lerner, Josh, and Jean Tirole. "The Economics of Technology Sharing: Open Source and Beyond." Journal of Economic Perspectives 19, no. 2 (Spring 2005): 99–120. (Earlier version distributed as NBER Working Paper Series No. w10956.)
  • 15 Jan 2007
  • Research & Ideas

The Business of Free Software

proprietary software portfolios to invest in open source software (OSS) projects that can sometimes seem unrelated to their core business.... View Details
Keywords: by Julia Hanna; Computer
  • 15 Dec 2006
  • Working Paper Summaries

The Business of Free Software: Enterprise Incentives, Investment, and Motivation in the Open Source Community

Keywords: by Marco Iansiti & Gregory L. Richards; Video Game; Web Services
  • May 2003
  • Article

Managing the Sources of Uncertainty: Matching Process and Context in Software Development

By: Alan MacCormack and Roberto Verganti
Keywords: Management; Risk and Uncertainty; Applications and Software; Research and Development; Technology Industry
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MacCormack, Alan, and Roberto Verganti. "Managing the Sources of Uncertainty: Matching Process and Context in Software Development." Journal of Product Innovation Management 20 (May 2003): 217–232.
  • April 2001 (Revised July 2001)
  • Case

Verge Software (A)

By: Dorothy A. Leonard and Elizabeth Kind
Scott Rozic, CEO of start-up Verge Software, has just told his board that he is taking the company in a totally new direction, moving from enterprise knowledge management software to Internet direct marketing. This case covers the start-up of the business, and Rozic's... View Details
Keywords: Venture Capital; Investment; Corporate Entrepreneurship; Business or Company Management; Business Strategy; Technological Innovation; Applications and Software; Management Teams; Governing and Advisory Boards; Business Startups; Decision Choices and Conditions; Product Development; Information Technology Industry; United States
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Leonard, Dorothy A., and Elizabeth Kind. "Verge Software (A)." Harvard Business School Case 601-065, April 2001. (Revised July 2001.)
  • 2019
  • Working Paper

The Impact of Professionals' Contributions to Online Knowledge Communities on Their Workplace Knowledge Work

By: Hila Lifshitz - Assaf and Frank Nagle
Knowledge work is becoming increasingly challenging as pace of change in the knowledge frontier is increasing. Organizations have created multiple mechanisms to minimize knowledge gaps and increase learning such internal training, mentorship programs as well as... View Details
Keywords: Open Source; Future Of Work; Software Development; Knowledge Work; Online Community; Learning; Knowledge Sharing; Applications and Software; Open Source Distribution; Performance Productivity
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Lifshitz - Assaf, Hila, and Frank Nagle. "The Impact of Professionals' Contributions to Online Knowledge Communities on Their Workplace Knowledge Work." Working Paper, April 2019.
  • 2005
  • Chapter

Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects

By: Karim R. Lakhani and Robert Wolf
Keywords: Motivation and Incentives; Applications and Software; Open Source Distribution; Attitudes
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Lakhani, Karim R., and Robert Wolf. "Why Hackers Do What They Do: Understanding Motivation and Effort in Free/Open Source Software Projects." In Perspectives on Free and Open Source Software, edited by Joe Feller, Brian Fitzgerald, Scott Hissam, and Karim R. Lakhani. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005.
  • January 2014 (Revised May 2015)
  • Case

Open English

By: Jeffrey J. Bussgang and Lisa Mazzanti
Open English, a Miami-based startup offering online English language learning services, had more than 30,000 active students across Latin America in 2012. The company had just closed a $43 million financing round in order to rapidly scale its service to the next level.... View Details
Keywords: Technology Strategy; Product Management; Startup; Online Learning; Digital Platforms; Entrepreneurship; Business Startups; Technology Industry; Miami; Venezuela
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Bussgang, Jeffrey J., and Lisa Mazzanti. "Open English." Harvard Business School Case 814-020, January 2014. (Revised May 2015.)
  • 28 May 2019
  • News

Future Source

applicants the most in-demand programming languages and provides living expenses in exchange for contracted developer time with client organizations. Its acceptance rate is less than 1 percent, but the open View Details
Keywords: Julia Hanna
  • March 2008 (Revised August 2009)
  • Case

Linden Lab: Opening Second Life

By: Thomas R. Eisenmann and Alison Berkley Wagonfeld
In early 2008, managers in Linden Lab, creator of the virtual world Second Life, faced decisions about the company's strategy. Despite profound initial skepticism about demand for a user-generated virtual world that was not a traditional game, Second Life had achieved... View Details
Keywords: Business Growth and Maturation; Decision Choices and Conditions; Entrepreneurship; Growth and Development Strategy; Open Source Distribution; Partners and Partnerships; Software
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Eisenmann, Thomas R., and Alison Berkley Wagonfeld. "Linden Lab: Opening Second Life." Harvard Business School Case 808-114, March 2008. (Revised August 2009.)
  • 06 Dec 2018
  • News

Source Code

open source, allowing academics and others to build on its work, but Numenta also offers standard commercial licenses—like the one Cortical.io is using—to pursue commercial opportunities. The idea behind making the work View Details
Keywords: Dan Morrell; illustrations by Daniel Hertzberg
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