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      • Faculty Publications  (362)

      Limits To Network EffectsRemove Limits To Network Effects →

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      • January 2015 (Revised May 2018)
      • Case

      $19B 4 txt app WhatsApp...omg!

      By: David Collis, Ashley Hartman and Aakash Mehta
      In February 2014, Facebook announced the acquisition of WhatsApp for $19 billion. WhatsApp, founded in 2009, was a relatively young company that employed only 50 people and earned merely $10 million in revenue in 2013. It was one of many mobile messaging services that... View Details
      Keywords: WhatsApp; Facebook; Mobile Messaging; Social Network; Acquisitions; Value Added; Strategy Alignment; Monetization; Social Platforms; Technology; Strategy; Corporate Strategy; Acquisition; Communication Technology; Social and Collaborative Networks; Value Creation; Social Media; Applications and Software; Digital Platforms; Communications Industry; Information Technology Industry
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      Collis, David, Ashley Hartman, and Aakash Mehta. "$19B 4 txt app WhatsApp...omg!" Harvard Business School Case 715-441, January 2015. (Revised May 2018.)
      • 2014
      • Other Teaching and Training Material

      Marketing Reading: Creating Customer Value

      By: Sunil Gupta
      This Reading explores how firms can create value for their customers. The goal of any business is to delight customers by understanding its customers' needs and to provide products and services to meet those needs. As a result, it is critical to understand what... View Details
      Keywords: Consumer Behavior; Consumer Marketing; Customer Experience; Network Effects; Service Profit Chain; Total Customer Value
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      Gupta, Sunil. "Marketing Reading: Creating Customer Value." Core Curriculum Readings Series. Boston: Harvard Business Publishing 8176, 2014.
      • Article

      Team Scaffolds: How Mesolevel Team Structures Enable Role-based Coordination in Temporary Groups

      By: Melissa A. Valentine and Amy C. Edmondson
      This paper shows how mesolevel structures support effective coordination in temporary groups. Prior research on coordination in temporary groups describes how roles encode individual responsibilities so that coordination between relative strangers is possible. We... View Details
      Keywords: Groups and Teams; Health Care and Treatment; Cooperation; Health Industry
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      Valentine, Melissa A., and Amy C. Edmondson. "Team Scaffolds: How Mesolevel Team Structures Enable Role-based Coordination in Temporary Groups." Organization Science 26, no. 2 (March–April 2015): 405–422.
      • 2016
      • Working Paper

      Henry A. Kissinger as Negotiator: Background and Key Accomplishments

      By: James K. Sebenius, Laurence A. Green and Eugene B. Kogan
      Following a brief summary of Henry A. Kissinger’s career, this paper describes six of his most pivotal negotiations: the historic establishment of U.S. diplomatic relations with the People’s Republic of China, the easing of geopolitical tension with the Soviet Union,... View Details
      Keywords: Kissinger; Bargaining; Diplomacy; Multiparty Negotiations; Dispute Resolution; Mediation; Coercive Diplomacy; Negotiation; International Relations; Personal Development and Career; United States
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      Sebenius, James K., Laurence A. Green, and Eugene B. Kogan. "Henry A. Kissinger as Negotiator: Background and Key Accomplishments." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 15-040, November 2014. (Revised December 2016.)
      • September 2014 (Revised January 2015)
      • Module Note

      Building Effective Working Relationships

      By: Lakshmi Ramarajan
      This note introduces a framework for deliberately building effective interpersonal relationships. First, we will define the necessary attributes of these relationships. Next, we will discuss common barriers to effectiveness. Lastly, we will provide tools to build and... View Details
      Keywords: Interpersonal Relations; Power And Influence; Networks; Interpersonal Communication; Performance Effectiveness
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      Ramarajan, Lakshmi. "Building Effective Working Relationships." Harvard Business School Module Note 415-030, September 2014. (Revised January 2015.)
      • September 2014 (Revised June 2017)
      • Case

      Google Inc. in 2014

      By: Benjamin Edelman and Thomas R. Eisenmann
      Describes Google's history, business model, governance structure, corporate culture, and processes for managing innovation. Reviews Google's recent strategic initiatives and the threats they pose to selected competitors. Asks what Google should do next. View Details
      Keywords: Search Engines; Google; Online Advertising; Internet and the Web; Network Effects; Business Model; Competition; Digital Marketing; Information Technology Industry; Advertising Industry
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      Edelman, Benjamin, and Thomas R. Eisenmann. "Google Inc. in 2014." Harvard Business School Case 915-004, September 2014. (Revised June 2017.)
      • September 2014
      • Case

      Google Inc. in 2014 (Abridged)

      By: Benjamin Edelman and Thomas R. Eisenmann
      Describes Google's history, business model, governance structure, corporate culture, and processes for managing innovation. Reviews Google's recent strategic initiatives and the threats they pose to Yahoo, Microsoft, and others. Asks what Google should do next. View Details
      Keywords: Search Engines; Google; Online Advertising; Internet and the Web; Network Effects; Business Model; Competition; Information Technology Industry; Advertising Industry
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      Edelman, Benjamin, and Thomas R. Eisenmann. "Google Inc. in 2014 (Abridged)." Harvard Business School Case 915-005, September 2014.
      • August 2014
      • Article

      Friends in High Places

      By: Lauren Cohen and Christopher Malloy
      We demonstrate that personal connections amongst U.S. politicians have a significant impact on Senate voting behavior. Networks based on alumni connections between politicians are consistent predictors of voting behavior. We estimate sharp measures that control for... View Details
      Keywords: Vote Trading; Networks; Legislation; Logrolling; Earmarks; Voting; Government Legislation; Social and Collaborative Networks; United States
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      Cohen, Lauren, and Christopher Malloy. "Friends in High Places." American Economic Journal: Economic Policy 6, no. 3 (August 2014): 63–91.
      • August 2014
      • Article

      Mortgage Convexity

      By: Samuel G. Hanson
      Most home mortgages in the United States are fixed-rate loans with an embedded prepayment option. When long-term rates decline, the effective duration of mortgage-backed securities (MBS) falls due to heightened refinancing expectations. I show that these changes in MBS... View Details
      Keywords: Mortgages; Interest Rates; Volatility
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      Hanson, Samuel G. "Mortgage Convexity." Journal of Financial Economics 113, no. 2 (August 2014): 270–299. (Internet Appendix Here.)
      • July 2014
      • Article

      Diasporas and Outsourcing: Evidence from oDesk and India

      By: Ejaz Ghani, William R. Kerr and Christopher Stanton
      This study examines the role of the Indian diaspora in the outsourcing of work to India. Our data are taken from oDesk, the world's largest online platform for outsourced contracts, where India is the largest country in terms of contract volume. We use an ethnic name... View Details
      Keywords: Diaspora; Outsourcing; oDesk; Networks; Job Cuts and Outsourcing; Diasporas; Internet and the Web; Ethnicity; Service Industry; South Asia; India
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      Ghani, Ejaz, William R. Kerr, and Christopher Stanton. "Diasporas and Outsourcing: Evidence from oDesk and India." Management Science 60, no. 7 (July 2014): 1677–1697.
      • Summer 2014
      • Article

      When Does a Platform Create Value by Limiting Choice?

      By: Ramon Casadesus-Masanell and Hanna Halaburda
      We present a theory for why it might be rational for a platform to limit the number of applications available on it. Our model is based on the observation that even if users prefer application variety, applications often also exhibit direct network effects. When there... View Details
      Keywords: Platform Governance; Direct Network Effects; Indirect Network Effects; Complements; Tragedy Of The Commons; Equilibrium Selection; Coordination; Foresight; Strategy; Value Creation; Digital Platforms; Balance and Stability; Decision Choices and Conditions; Consumer Behavior; Applications and Software; Network Effects
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      Casadesus-Masanell, Ramon, and Hanna Halaburda. "When Does a Platform Create Value by Limiting Choice?" Journal of Economics & Management Strategy 23, no. 2 (Summer 2014): 259–293.
      • 2014
      • Book

      Accelerate: Building Strategic Agility for a Faster-Moving World

      By: John P. Kotter
      Based on the award-winning article in Harvard Business Review, from global leadership expert John Kotter. It's a familiar scene in organizations today: a new competitive threat or a big opportunity emerges. You quickly create a strategic initiative in response and... View Details
      Keywords: Competitive Strategy; Organizational Structure
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      Kotter, John P. Accelerate: Building Strategic Agility for a Faster-Moving World. Harvard Business Review Press, 2014.
      • April 2014
      • Article

      The Limits of Scale: Companies That Get Big Fast Are Often Left Behind. Here's Why.

      By: Hanna Halaburda and Felix Oberholzer-Gee
      The value of many products and services rises or falls with the number of customers using them; the fewer fax machines in use, the less important it is to have one. These network effects influence consumer decisions and affect companies' ability to compete. Strategists... View Details
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      Halaburda, Hanna, and Felix Oberholzer-Gee. "The Limits of Scale: Companies That Get Big Fast Are Often Left Behind. Here's Why." Harvard Business Review 92, no. 4 (April 2014): 95–99.
      • 2013
      • Working Paper

      Separating Homophily and Peer Influence with Latent Space

      By: Joseph P. Davin, Sunil Gupta and Mikolaj Jan Piskorski
      We study the impact of peer behavior on the adoption of mobile apps in a social network. To identify social influence properly, we introduce latent space as an approach to control for latent homophily, the idea that "birds of a feather flock together." In a series of... View Details
      Keywords: Social Influence; Social Network; Mobile App; Peer Effects; Latent Homophily; Latent Space; Proxy Variables; Familiarity; Behavior; Consumer Behavior; Applications and Software; Social and Collaborative Networks; Mobile and Wireless Technology; Power and Influence; Social Media
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      Davin, Joseph P., Sunil Gupta, and Mikolaj Jan Piskorski. "Separating Homophily and Peer Influence with Latent Space." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 14-053, January 2014.
      • September 2013 (Revised August 2015)
      • Background Note

      Leadership and Teaming

      By: Ethan Bernstein
      Small differences in the leadership of teams can have large consequences for the success of their efforts. Many initiatives fail not because of a fatal error in judgment or insufficient ideas, knowledge, motivation, or capabilities to deliver a solution. They fail... View Details
      Keywords: Teams; Teaming; Leadership And Managing People; Leadership; Team Effectiveness; Team Performance; Team Design; Team Leadership; Teamwork; Team Process; Team Function; Team Launch; 60/30/10 Rule; Team Boundary; Distribution Of Leadership Authority; Self-Managed Teams; Virtual Teams; Unbounded Teams; Acts Of Leadership; Execution Teams; Decision Making Teams; Creativity Teams; Team Size; Task Design; Team Timeline; Team Roles; Team Representation; Diversity; Team Familiarity; Collective Intelligence; Team Stages Of Development; Team Coaching; Performance Pressure; X-Teams; Team Focus; Interaction; Management Teams; Managerial Roles; Management Systems; Management Style; Management Skills; Management Practices and Processes; Organizational Design; Organizational Structure; Performance Effectiveness; Performance Efficiency; Performance Productivity; Groups and Teams; Networks; Social Psychology; Behavior; Conflict and Resolution; Creativity; Social and Collaborative Networks; Satisfaction; Prejudice and Bias; Power and Influence; Personal Characteristics; Familiarity; Cognition and Thinking; Attitudes; Projects; Organizational Culture; Organizational Change and Adaptation; Leadership Development; Leadership Style; Leading Change; Knowledge Use and Leverage; Knowledge Sharing; Collaborative Innovation and Invention; Innovation and Management; Innovation Leadership; Design; Interpersonal Communication; Accommodations Industry; Accounting Industry; Advertising Industry; Aerospace Industry; Agriculture and Agribusiness Industry; Air Transportation Industry; Apparel and Accessories Industry; Auto Industry; Banking Industry; Battery Industry; Beauty and Cosmetics Industry; Bicycle Industry; Biotechnology Industry; Chemical Industry; Communications Industry; Computer Industry; Construction Industry; Consulting Industry; Consumer Products Industry; Distribution Industry; Education Industry; Electronics Industry; Employment Industry; Energy Industry; Entertainment and Recreation Industry; Fashion Industry; Financial Services Industry; Fine Arts Industry; Food and Beverage Industry; Forest Products Industry; Forestry Industry; Green Technology Industry; Health Industry; Industrial Products Industry; Information Industry; Information Technology Industry; Insurance Industry; Journalism and News Industry; Legal Services Industry; Manufacturing Industry; Media and Broadcasting Industry; Medical Devices and Supplies Industry; Mining Industry; Motion Pictures and Video Industry; Motorcycle Industry; Music Industry; Pharmaceutical Industry; Public Administration Industry; Public Relations Industry; Publishing Industry; Pulp and Paper Industry; Rail Industry; Real Estate Industry; Retail Industry; Rubber Industry; Semiconductor Industry; Service Industry; Shipping Industry; Sports Industry; Steel Industry; Technology Industry; Telecommunications Industry; Tourism Industry; Transportation Industry; Travel Industry; Utilities Industry; Video Game Industry; Web Services Industry; Asia; North and Central America; South America; Atlantic Ocean; Central Asia; Europe; Latin America; Middle East; Oceania; West Indies
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      Bernstein, Ethan. "Leadership and Teaming." Harvard Business School Background Note 414-033, September 2013. (Revised August 2015.)
      • 2013
      • Working Paper

      U.S. High-Skilled Immigration, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship: Empirical Approaches and Evidence

      By: William R. Kerr
      High-skilled immigrants are a very important component of U.S. innovation and entrepreneurship. Immigrants account for roughly a quarter of U.S. workers in these fields, and they have a similar contribution in terms of output measures like patents or firm starts. This... View Details
      Keywords: Innovation; Diaspora; Diasporas; Entrepreneurship; Innovation and Invention; Immigration
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      Kerr, William R. "U.S. High-Skilled Immigration, Innovation, and Entrepreneurship: Empirical Approaches and Evidence." Harvard Business School Working Paper, No. 14-017, August 2013.
      • August 2013 (Revised July 2024)
      • Case

      Amazon in 2024

      By: Sunil Gupta and Margaret L. Rodriguez
      Amazon launched its website in July 1995 to sell books online and by 2020 it has grown to become a digital giant with over $280 billion in annual sales. A large part of its growth came from expanding into a variety of businesses that some see as unrelated. Has it... View Details
      Keywords: Platforms; Complements; Showrooming; Ecosystem; Growth Strategy; Competitive Advantage; Network Effects; Internet and the Web; Business Model; Competitive Strategy; Growth and Development Strategy; Digital Platforms; Retail Industry; Publishing Industry
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      Gupta, Sunil, and Margaret L. Rodriguez. "Amazon in 2024." Harvard Business School Case 514-025, August 2013. (Revised July 2024.)
      • July–August 2013
      • Article

      The Network Secrets of Great Change Agents

      By: Julie Battilana and Tiziana Casciaro
      Change is hard, especially in a large organization. Yet some leaders succeed—often spectacularly—at transforming their workplaces. What makes them able to exert this sort of influence when the vast majority can't? The authors tracked 68 change initiatives in the UK's... View Details
      Keywords: Networks; Organizational Change and Adaptation; Leading Change; Health Industry
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      Battilana, Julie, and Tiziana Casciaro. "The Network Secrets of Great Change Agents." Harvard Business Review 91, nos. 7/8 (July–August 2013): 62–68.
      • June 2013 (Revised November 2022)
      • Exercise

      Competition Simulator Exercise

      By: Eric J. Van den Steen
      In the Competition Simulator Exercise, students explore through trial and error some important economic foundations of competitive strategy and managerial economics. In particular, the nine simulator exercises let students explore horizontal differentiation with and... View Details
      Keywords: Competition; Economics; Game Theory; Competitive Strategy; Learning; Mathematical Methods; Analysis
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      Van den Steen, Eric J. "Competition Simulator Exercise." Harvard Business School Exercise 713-804, June 2013. (Revised November 2022.)
      • 2013
      • Dissertation

      Designing Freemium: A Model of Consumer Usage, Upgrade, and Referral Dynamics

      By: Clarence Lee, Vineet Kumar and Sunil Gupta
      Abstract. Over the past decade "freemium" (free + premium) has become the dominant business model among internet start-ups for its ability to acquire and monetize a large install-base with limited marketing resources. Freemium is a hybrid strategy where a firm offers... View Details
      Keywords: Discrete-Continuous Choice Dynamic Structural Models; Bayesian Estimation; Word-of-Mouth; Digital Services; Freemium; Entrepreneurship; Business Model; Motivation and Incentives; Marketing Strategy; Internet and the Web; Consumer Behavior; Marketing Reference Programs; Business Startups
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      Lee, Clarence, Vineet Kumar, and Sunil Gupta. "Designing Freemium: A Model of Consumer Usage, Upgrade, and Referral Dynamics." Diss., Harvard Business School, 2013. (Job Market Paper.)
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